The conditions of the early 19th century predetermined the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution in Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries

15.11.2021

The industrial revolution is a general historical phenomenon that characterizes a certain stage in the development of capitalism. Initially, the industrial revolution was understood as a series of technical inventions of 1760-1830 that changed the conditions of production in many industries. In 1884, the English scientist A. Toynbee introduced the term "industrial revolution" into scientific circulation, denoting a qualitative leap in the development of productive forces. It begins in industrial production and spreads to all spheres of labor and production (including agriculture), causing the growth of cities and influencing all aspects of life and life of society. The end result of this process was the emergence of modern industrial civilization (Table 8).

industrial revolution(industrial technical revolution) - a system of economic and socio-political changes based on the transition from manual to machine labor.

The industrial revolution, therefore, meant a fundamental change in the organizational and economic level of the structure of the economy of developed countries, since it was associated with the transition from manufactory to factory.

Factory- a form of organization of large-scale production, based on the use of a system of machines and complex labor cooperation in the conditions of node specialization of part-time workers.

Table 8

Background, sources and consequences of the industrial revolution

The end of the table. eight

Sources

use of J. Watt's steam engine

· the invention and introduction of the Stephenson steam locomotive and the Fulton steamer at the beginning of the 19th century.

Exploitation of colonies and semi-colonies

indemnities and reparations from states defeated in the war

loans, credits, direct investments of foreign capital

Consequences

increase in technical equipment and productivity of social labor

industrialization

urbanization

the concentration of the industrial proletariat and the growth of its political self-consciousness

Improving the quality and standard of living of society

In general, the industrial revolution affected 1.5 Kondratiev cycles: 1790-1840/50. - the period of the formation of the actual factory production (the cycle of the industrial industrial revolution Kondratiev); 1840/50-1890 - "bourgeois cycle" Kondratiev. These are the first cycles of the endogenous type, associated with basic technological innovations, the successful implementation of which was accompanied by changes in other parameters of the economic system. The removal of technological restrictions on manual labor, and then the elimination of the performance limits of water and steam engines, deepened the process of rationalizing production. The industrial revolution became the starting point of industrialization.

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in all sectors of the national economy and, above all, in industry.

In Western economic theory, it is customary to distinguish three main models of industrialization: traditional, command and market. The traditional model corresponds to relatively undeveloped societies based on rural structures and characterized by isolation, stable customs and subsistence production. Its prerequisite is not only the inevitable shortage of resources, but also "zero growth", that is, in conditions where resources are limited, there is only one way to generate income - at the expense of other classes, industries or sectors of the economy. As a result, communal or state power takes over the functions of redistribution. In contrast, the command model can be characterized by economic growth, although it has to reckon with a lack of resources. It is aimed at solving the priority political tasks set by the state. The market model assumes “super-zero growth” as its premise. It is determined by the minimum redistributive functions of the state and the market regulation of the price system to provide incentives for production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each model ultimately reflects differences in the perception of the world, due to the dissimilarity of human capabilities, ethical attitudes, social or political priorities. In the history of the economy, various combinations of these factors determined the path of industrialization of different states.

Necessary prerequisites for successful industrialization:

presence of an entrepreneur and entrepreneurial culture;

· the existence of legal and political institutions that encourage entrepreneurship in a free market and private property.

6.2. Features of the industrialization of the Western world

England is the first country to start and complete the industrial revolution, becoming the "workshop of the world". Favorable conditions contributed to this:

· long-term development of commodity-money relations has led to the formation of industrial demand for finished products and goods;

· a significant concentration of capital in private hands (by 1750 - income from state rent reached only 3%);

· the completion of the agrarian revolution, which contributed to the formation of the labor market and the concentration of land;

Changes in agriculture (the three-field system was replaced by crop rotation (cereals, turnips and clover), which led to an increase in productivity;

· the bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century, which stimulated the development of capitalism;

· geopolitical factor, characterized by the absence of foreign invasions;

· resource base: a small amount of forests has led to attempts to replace wood with other types of fuel.

Table 9

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in England

Chronological framework
1735 - ser. 1760s	"State of Development" (John Nef): creating the prerequisites for the industrial revolution, the development of basic industries (coal, metallurgical industries); concentration of manufactories; increase in foreign trade
ser. 1760 - 1785	The beginning of the industrial revolution in light industry (cotton production). Favorable conditions: lack of workshops; the mechanism of "demonstrative consumption" the availability of raw materials - cotton from the colonies
1785 - ser. 19th century	The introduction of the Watt steam engine, the discovery of a new method of metal processing - puddling, the development of the transport system, the creation of domestic engineering

The English model of industrialization, which began with an industrial revolution in light industry, then spread to the basic industries and ended with the emergence of machine production itself, was called the “towards the mouth” model. .

The development of the industrial revolution and industrialization led to significant changes in the structure of the English economy. In the middle of the nineteenth century. imports of agricultural products put an end to the development of the country's agriculture. Export-oriented heavy industry is especially developed. The demographic structure is changing: the share of the urban population by the end of the nineteenth century. is 75%. However, after the industrial revolution, the English economy begins to develop cyclically, increasingly experiencing crises, the first of which were noted back in 1815-1816 and 1819. (Table 9).

In France, the industrial revolution developed at a slower pace. The first machines appeared in industry at the end of the 18th century, but the industrial revolution came only in 1815-1830, and ended in the 50s-60s. nineteenth century Features of the industrial revolution in France:

unfavorable factors;

· incompleteness of the agrarian revolution, small capacity of the domestic market: weak financial incentives, wars and revolutions;

large population, developed foreign trade;

favorable factors.

Table 10

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in France

Thus, the industrial revolution in France is characterized by the initial rise of manufacturing industries using labor-intensive methods, and the subsequent development of basic industries with their capital-intensive technologies. Such a model was called "toward the source" in contrast to the English one. An important feature of French industrialization was its duality: the existence, along with new large enterprises capable of providing mass production of standard products, a decentralized system of small and medium-sized enterprises specializing in the production of piece products. In addition, more than half of the national income was created in agriculture, that is, France became an agro-industrial country. However, the conclusion about the inefficiency of the French model of industrialization is not supported by the latest research. A system based on labor-consuming manufacturing and integration back to the source was well adapted to the country's capabilities. This allowed France to become one of the original leaders of the industrialization process, which, as F. Caron wrote, “was neither completely victorious nor completely defeated” (Table 10).

The emergence of large-scale machine production in Germany occurs only in the second half of the 19th century. The main reason for this situation was the preservation of political fragmentation and the feudal regime in agriculture and handicrafts. The prerequisites for the process of industrialization were created by the French Revolution of 1789-1794, the Napoleonic Wars, which led to the partial abolition of feudal duties in the occupied territories, and the agrarian reforms of the early 19th century, which resulted in a special Prussian path for the development of capitalism in agriculture.

The Prussian way of development of capitalism in agriculture is the process of dispossession of the peasantry, which received personal freedom, and the creation of large Junker farms.

Of particular importance for the industrial revolution was the beginning of the economic unification of the German principalities within the framework of the Customs Union, which strengthened their internal ties and international positions.

Table 11

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in Germany

Chronological
late XVIII-ser. 19th century	Initial preparatory stage. An industrial revolution in the textile, cotton and silk industries. Development of coal mining, heavy industry and railway transport
50-70s 19th century	The development of the factory industry. The emergence of the chemical and electrical industries
70-80s 19th century	Completion of the industrial revolution. Close interweaving of factory production and the formation of monopolies

Economic backwardness of Germany in the first half of the XIX century. led to a much stronger role for the state.

Command economy methods in Germany:

· provision of protective tariffs;

· provision of state orders for heavy industry;

· Encouraging innovative banks to increase investment;

· the formation of a dual system of prices - low export and high domestic.

Germany was also able to take advantage of the late industrial revolution. Using technological equipment from more developed countries, German industry had the opportunity to more quickly create domestic engineering (especially in the military field). The change in the structure of production allowed Germany to take a leading position in many industrial indicators, including the concentration of production, labor and capital (Table 11).

The development of the industrial revolution in the United States proceeded in conditions different from European countries:

1) a huge sparsely populated area (25 people per 1 sq. km, for comparison: in France - 100 people);

2) rapid population growth (1790 - 4 million; 1840 - 17 million; 1850 - 50 million), which contributed to the rapid creation of new markets;

3) the organizational and economic level of the structure of the economy is represented by handicraft production, mainly metalworking;

4) cheap labor associated with the preservation of slavery;

5) non-equivalent trade with the UK;

6) a clearly defined agricultural orientation of the economy.

The formation of the state (1776) played a special role in creating favorable conditions for the industrial revolution. The War of Independence eliminated both the tendency to impose feudal orders on the part of the metropolis and the real elements of feudalism in the field of agrarian relations. The final formation of the so-called "American way" of the development of capitalism in agriculture was secured by the Homestead Act in 1862.

American way of development of capitalism in agriculture- the development of the economy of farmers who received land from the state and are free from paying absolute land rent.

the revolution destroyed numerous obstacles to the development of industry and trade, introduced by England at one time (“iron”, “grain” and “money” laws), and control over natural resources passed from the English king to a private entrepreneur. the creation of the state contributed to the formation of a unified transport and monetary system, the formation of an internal market and the expansion of foreign economic relations. However, the consequences of the War of Independence 1775-1783. affected mainly the northern and central states. The change in the agrarian economy of the southern United States began after the Civil War of 1861-1865. and the abolition of slavery abolitionism.

Table 12

Stages of development of the industrial revolution in the United States

Chronological
20-40s 19th century	Preparatory stage. Technical revolution in the cotton industry. Creation of preconditions for production automation
40-50s 19th century	The beginning of a technical revolution in agriculture, which contributed to the transition from extensive to intensive farming methods. Development of coal mining, metallurgy and transport
60-70s 19th century	Creation of domestic mechanical engineering. Industrial development in the southern states. Emergence of the oil and chemical industries

The exceptionally fast growth rates of industrial production in the USA were accompanied by processes of its concentration. The share of the country in world production also increased at an unprecedented pace. Thus, in 1860, the United States provided 17% of world industrial output, in 1870 - 23%, and in 1880 - already 28%, overtaking all countries of the world and practically catching up with England (Table 12).

Japan back in the 60s. 19th century remained a feudal country. The development of the industrial revolution here begins after the Meiji Isin Revolution - the unfinished bourgeois revolution of 1867-1868. Taking into account the weak readiness for the industrialization of the country, the government embarked on the path of planting "state capitalism". The state at the expense of budgetary appropriations with the use of foreign experience created a national industry. In the 80s. the government decided to reorient its policy towards the all-round development of private capitalist industry with the implementation of denationalization measures. To do this, state-owned enterprises began to be sold on preferential terms or leased out to privileged representatives of the bourgeoisie and people from the high nobility. Among them were the so-called demonstration enterprises - the firms of Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Furukawa, Yasuda, Asodo, Kawasaki and others. an influx of cheap foreign goods. At the same time, the government subsidized primarily the development of enterprises that worked for the army and navy, as well as for communications and transport. Among the main branches of Japanese industry, light, primarily textile, excelled. The industry was dominated by small enterprises. A distinctive feature of the Japanese economy was the existence of a special system of zaibatsu, a kind of holding company, operating under the control of several influential families. The latter were shareholders in numerous companies that employed a large number of contractors. Such relations made it possible to maintain the hierarchy inherited from the feudal system. At the beginning of the XX century. protectionist government policies prompted a restructuring of the Mitsui and Mitsubishi family businesses, which gradually evolved to the group model.

In 1905-1907. In Japan, the industrial revolution is coming to an end, which is reflected in the structure of the economy.

Features of the structure of the economy in Japan at the beginning of the 20th century:

metallurgy, textiles, shipbuilding, large enterprises with machinery;

handicraft and home industries, craft workshops and manufactories.

6.3. Development of the financial system

The era of the industrial revolution was accompanied by the reorganization of the financial system, due to the rapid development of credit institutions. The need for capital, experienced by both the state and private entrepreneurs, stimulated the development of the process of centralization of temporarily free funds and demand for them in banks. Their most important functions at that time were mediation in settlements and the provision of loans, the implementation of which led to the creation of specific credit means of circulation: banknotes and checks. The complication of banking functions in the XIX century. affected the structure of the banking system. If from the seventeenth century until the middle of the nineteenth century. in every developed country there were several issuing institutions that received from the government the privileged right to issue money, then in the 50s. a single bank is vested with the monopoly right to issue. This is determined by the need to concentrate in a single place gold reserves, which at that time provided coverage for the issue of banknotes and were used in international payments. Thus, the Bank of England (established in 1694) received a monopoly right to issue in 1844 on the basis of Peel's law. The French bank (founded in January 1800) receives for a period of 15 years the privilege to issue only in Paris, then after the Restoration this right extends to branches. In the USA, Germany, Italy, Japan, such transformations occur much later.

Initially, the functions of issuing banks coincided with those of deposit banks: banknotes were certificates of deposited metallic money. However, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. issuing banks were able to issue paper money on three occasions:

banknotes were issued in exchange for metal coming from private individuals;

· when rediscounting commercial bills previously discounted by deposit banks;

· when conducting open market operations (purchase and sale of securities on the money market).

The most important outcome of the era of the industrial revolution was the emergence in many developed countries of a nationwide fund of funds - the budget. In their revenue part, the main place (from 80 to 90%) was occupied by taxes.

Reasons for the reorganization of the tax system in the XVIII-XIX centuries:

Expansion of the sphere of commodity-money circulation;

· the policy of stimulating the economy;

an increase in government spending.

The main part of the existing taxes are indirect, included in the prices of consumer goods. For example, at the end of the eighteenth century in England, the only country with an extensive but homogeneous system of taxation, direct tax was 1/4 of government revenue. The main taxes were excise and local taxes on the maintenance of the poor. In France, among the main taxes were the excise tax on luxury goods and drinks, as well as a direct tax on peasants (taglia), traditional duties, including the billeting of soldiers, a salt tax and a tax on silver processing. In the German principalities there were excise duties levied on imported and exported goods at rates ranging from 5 to 25%. In state budget expenditures, the main place (up to 2/3) was occupied by the army. The needs of the state apparatus were also significant, for example, in the middle of the 19th century. for these purposes allocated in the budget of England - 1.05%, France - 2.01%, Prussia - 3.9%.

6.4. Leading countries and their economic role in the world

Thanks to the creation of the first factory industry in the history of mankind, England in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. occupied an exceptional place in the world economy and international politics. Although the rate of its economic growth was low and amounted to about 0.5% per year, this figure is higher than that of other European countries. In 1820-1870, the growth rate of English industry already reached 1.5% per year. England mined 2/3 of all coal, produced more than half of the metal and canvas. By 1870, it had 31.9% of the world's industrial potential (the trade turnover is greater than that of France, Germany, Italy combined, 3 times higher than that of the United States). England acts not only as a producer, but also as a major consumer of raw materials and foodstuffs. This stimulates the development of trade and the merchant fleet, the tonnage of which is 10 million (For comparison, in France and Germany this figure reached 1 million, in Germany - 2 million). Due to the peculiarities of its development, England also acts as a world creditor, playing the role of the conductor of the international orchestra of the gold standard.

Industrial and commercial hegemony was promoted by the economic policy of the state. Until the 40s. nineteenth century it proceeds within the framework of protectionism, accompanied by high customs duties on foreign goods. With the strengthening of the dominant position, in need of markets for its products, England is moving to a policy of free trade, which manifested itself, among other things, in the abolition of the Corn Laws (1846) and the Navigation Act (1860). The development of relations with France became a striking manifestation of the new priorities in the foreign economic activity of enterprises. So, under the treaty of 1860, England abolished duties on French silks and food, and France - on English cars, hardware, coal, wool. Such agreements were not equal, since the cheapness of British goods led to the displacement of national French goods from the domestic market.

Until the mid-60s of the nineteenth century. England has a positive trade balance, then the trade balance becomes passive, but the overall estimated balance remains active (the passive balance was offset by "invisible exports": transport services and capital movements). However, the lack of competition in the domestic and colonial markets, as well as the stereotypes of the behavior of the leading country, led to stagnation in development and, ultimately, the loss of England's position in the world market, where from the 80s. championship is contested by the USA, Germany and Japan.

6.5. Economic development of Russia in the era of the industrial revolution

The peculiarity of the development of the industrial revolution in Russia was determined by the action of a combination of factors:

1) poverty and illiteracy of the population;

2) the need for large initial investments for the organization of production;

3) the preservation of serfdom;

4) the special role of the state (industrialization takes place within the framework of the mobilization path);

5) British competition both in its weak market and in a potential foreign one.

The state sought to develop industry, guided primarily by military purposes, so the growth of capital investment in heavy industry was due to the more widespread light industry and agriculture, which used labor-intensive methods. Russia was the only country among the major industrial countries that undertook industrialization without having a strong agricultural sector.

Stages of development of the industrial revolution in Russia

From 1804 to 1864, the productivity of labor in domestic industry increased almost fivefold, despite the presence of serf labor. However, overcoming the technological backwardness of the country rested on social backwardness, which was reflected in the peculiarities of the course of the process under consideration.

Features of industrialization in Russia:

the predominance of free-lance labor in the form of otkhodnichestvo;

disinterest in the use of new technologies;

the cheapness of serf labor;

narrowness of the internal and external markets;

lack of necessary capital in the country;

· continuation of the initial capital process;

· strong role of the state in stimulating the development of production.

Changes in the economy had an impact on determining the course of foreign economic policy. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The government repeatedly takes measures to intensify industrial and commercial activities, while pursuing the goals of replenishing the treasury and protecting Russian industry. State policy takes on a pronounced prohibitive-protectionist character. This is confirmed by the adoption of a number of customs tariffs in 1810, 1816, 1819, 1850 and 1857, in accordance with which customs duties on imported and exported raw materials were increased and the import of equipment and the export of finished products were encouraged. But the protectionist nature of the customs legislation did not meet the needs of a developing state, because, unlike the developed countries in Russia, the income from foreign trade went mainly to military needs and to the unproductive consumption of the ruling circles. Only in the 60s. a policy reorientation begins, characterized by the expansion of the internal market by stimulating investment in industry and railway construction, as well as by providing assistance to agriculture. Economic support for agriculture was carried out mainly through fiscal policy (reducing taxes on production due to an even distribution of the burden among all classes). Thus, the development of the national domestic market was hampered by the underdevelopment of agriculture. In addition, all European countries solved the problem of agrarian overpopulation as a problem of land shortage, while in Russia the availability of free land retained the basis for an extensive type of development. By the middle of the XIX century. in Russia, a general structural crisis of the feudal-serf system was objectively ripe. The main indicator of this was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. At the end of the 1950s, Russia found itself in the state of a virtually insolvent debtor. The state debt reached 1 billion rubles, and the budget deficit increased six times - from 52 to 307 million rubles. The credit system was also in a difficult state. Back in 1839, the Minister of Finance E. Kankrin carried out a monetary reform. It was found that 350 rubles. paper money equals 100 rubles. silver, which meant the devaluation of banknotes. They were completely withdrawn from circulation and replaced by banknotes, which were freely exchanged for silver. But during the Crimean War, the government repeatedly resorted to money emission, the credit ruble exchange rate was constantly declining, so free exchange was canceled.

Under such conditions, the state still acted as the initiator of the transformations, which was reflected in the spread of the exogenous economic cycle of the 1950s - mid-1990s. At the same time, the transformations carried out during this period played a special role, because. for the first time in the conditions of the country, conditions arose for the development of a mass free owner and the creation of prerequisites for the transition from a mobilization type of development to an innovative one, that is, a process similar to that taking place at that time in developed countries.

The innovative type of economic growth represents a stable, recurring trend in the development of society based on a continuous and purposeful process of searching, preparing and implementing innovations that make it possible to increase the efficiency of the functioning of social production, to increase the degree of realization of the needs of society and its members.

However, the transition to an innovative type of economic growth proceeded under the conditions of a traditional "revolution from above".

The most important link in the reform of the 60-70s. was the abolition of serfdom. The content of this reform, set out in the Regulations of February 19, 1861 ., It boiled down to the following: serfs were declared personally free without any ransom, they received allotment from the landowner, for which they continued to serve corvée or dues, that is, they became temporarily obliged. Peasants could redeem not only the estate, but also by mutual agreement with the landowner and field land, using a government loan for this. Upon completion of the redemption, the patrimonial supervision of the landowner over the peasants ceased, their status as temporarily indebted ended, the peasants passed into the position of free owners. Relations between the landlord and the peasants were mediated by the community, which, in particular, collectively paid for the redemption loan provided by the state for 49 years. Coming out of serfdom, the peasants remained in the community, received a certain amount of self-government, and shared their obligations to the state. In other words, the reform was based on the extension and conservation of semi-feudal relations. Ransom was a kind of feudal rent. It was even formally calculated from the amount of the quitrent: for the allotment it was necessary to pay such an amount that, when deposited in the bank, gives the landowner a quitrent payment in the form of interest. Therefore, in the central regions of Russia, where a tithe cost 25 rubles in a normal purchase, it cost the peasant a ransom of 60 rubles. The difference between the market value was feudal (essentially) rent. Along with redemption payments, peasants paid taxes to local and central authorities. Numerous segments from the pre-reform allotment forced the lease of additional plots of land. The financial burden paralyzed the possibility of accumulation, and the frequent communal redistribution of land - entrepreneurship, especially among wealthy peasants.

In the bourgeoisization of the agrarian sector, which was the main consequence of the peasant reform, the similarity with the Prussian path of agricultural development is often noted. There were indeed similarities, but there were differences.

signs		Germany
similarity	The liquidation of serfdom
	Cutting land plots of peasants
	Transfer of land to peasants for redemption
	Creation of large land holdings
	Preservation of rental relations	Elimination of semi-feudal dependency relations
	Community Preservation	Elimination of communal relations
	Preservation of the privileges of the landowners	Elimination of the privileges of landlords

Starting with innovations in the sphere of public life, which is decisive for agrarian Russia, the reforms carried out according to a single plan have spread to many spheres of public life, taking on a complex character. Of particular importance for the development of the domestic economy was the zemstvo reform of 1864, which contributed to the revitalization of the activities of the main producers of industrial goods for the population - handicraft peasants. Research carried out by the zemstvo showed that among the most intractable problems of handicrafts were their supply with raw materials, the provision of credit and the sale of products, and the poor technical training of handicraftsmen. A way out was found first in workshops and sales points organized by handicraft museums, then in the transition to a system of artels that satisfy the need for short-term credit in the network of provincial and zemstvo cash desks, as well as at the expense of the private fund named after. S. T. Morozova.

Financial reform also played an important role. Until 1861, the country's credit system was represented by state-owned noble banks, which provided loans to landlords secured by estates, and by private banking houses, lending to industry. In 1860, the State Bank was established, which until the end of the century did not have the right to independently issue banknotes, but could only replace old banknotes with new ones, accept deposits and issue loans, buy and sell gold, silver, foreign currency and securities. This led to the fact that, figuratively speaking, the country's banking system played the role of a horse-drawn car. After the reform of 1861, state-owned banks were merged with the State Bank. During this period, the activity of commercial banks begins. The first joint-stock commercial bank (St. Petersburg) was opened on November 1, 1864, then a number of commercial banking offices appeared in the capital, in 1870 the Volga-Kama, and then the Azov-Don banks were formed. In addition, reforms of a more specific nature were carried out in the economy: the abolition of wine leases and their replacement with a unified system of excises and patent fees (1863), attempts to restore the value of the ruble in cash (1862-1863) and others.

The fundamental difference between the reforms of 60-70 years. from all the previous ones was the creation of legal guarantees to entrepreneurs from the state. They were enshrined in the "Regulations on duties for the right to trade and other crafts" of January 8, 1863, which put an end to the inequality of classes in the rights to engage in private business activities. Restrictions that existed until 1917 were imposed on Jews, civil servants, Orthodox priests, Protestant pastors, their wives and minor children. The military, both soldiers and officers, could engage in commercial activities only through authorized representatives. The situation left two merchant guilds, abolishing the category of "trading peasants". A serious step forward was the introduction of an economic sign of the division of industrial establishments according to technical equipment and the number of workers. Guild certificates of the second category were taken by the owners of industrial establishments in which there were machines with a steam or water engine, or there were more than 16 workers, as well as various sellers operating within the city or county. Guild certificates of the first category were purchased by wholesalers operating throughout Russia. In addition to these guilds, there was a category of "petty bargaining", as well as "delivering", "peddling".

All these transformations were not consistent, but they turned out to be very significant for the economy, because marked the beginning of the stage of market recovery and the breaking of discontinuities in the model of the country's economic development. The liberation from serfdom of almost 2/5 of the country's population gave a serious impetus to the growth of the population, which from 1860 to 1897. increased by 52 million people, mainly due to natural increase. The collection of basic agricultural crops has been constantly increasing. Their productivity increased by an average of 50%, for comparison, during this period in European countries it increased by 2-4 times. The changes taking place in agriculture contributed to a shift in the structure of the economy, characteristic of the stage of transition of a traditional agrarian society to an industrial type of development and associated with a gradual decrease in the share of the agricultural sector in the total national product. The abolition of serfdom led, on the one hand, to the transition of industry to civilian labor, on the other, to the formation of a labor market. This was one of the reasons for the temporary decline, especially in industries that used the labor of serfs. The acceleration of industrial growth occurred after 1875, and then after a break at the end of the 80s. 19th century At the same time, the fate of the progressive transformations of Alexander II turned out to be rather complicated. After his death on March 1, 1881, Alexander III, fearing the escalation of the revolutionary movement, carried out the so-called "reforms inside out."

additional literature

Abrams R.M. On the issue of studying the history of industrialization // Economic history: research, historiography, polemics. – M.: Nauka, 1992.

Amosov A. Economic and evolutionary aspect of national-state interests // Vopr. economy. 1994. No. 2.

Semenev L.S. Customs policy of Russia in 40-50s. nineteenth century and industrial revolution // Vopr. history of Russia XIX-beginning

20th century – L.: LGU, 1983.

set of economic, social and political. shifts that marked the transition from the manufacturing stage of capitalism to the factory system of capitalist. production based on machine technology. P. p. - "... a sharp and abrupt transformation of all social relations under the influence of machines ..." (V. I. Lenin, Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 2, p. 231 (vol. 2, p. 215)). As a result, P. p. capitalist. the method of production received a technical basis corresponding to its nature and established itself as a socio-economic. formation. The industrial revolution set in motion the general law of capitalist accumulation, which predetermined the further growth of extremes of wealth and poverty. The most clearly expressed form of P. p. acquired in England, where it occurred earlier than in other countries. The rapid pace of the political revolution in England and the profound changes it caused prompted contemporaries to compare it with the "political revolution" that took place in France; hence the term "industrial revolution", sometimes used instead of the term "P. p.". Scientific the concept of P. p. was developed by K. Marx and F. Engels, who revealed its socio-political. content. Burzh. ist. Science either denies P. P. altogether, replacing it with a smooth evolution, or, identifying it with shifts in technology, sees P. P. in every major technical. discovery in various epochs - both in the deepest antiquity (which gives it reason to attribute a very ancient origin to capitalism), and in modern times (hence the assessment of the scientific and technical revolution of the 20th century, widespread in bourgeois literature, as the second P . P.). Burzh. researchers, as a rule, refuse the general characteristics of P. p., its patterns and place in history. Speaking about the causes of P. p. in England, they usually arbitrarily single out certain aspects of this complex ist. process. Contemporaries of P. p. in England explained it as a favorable geographic. position' of the country and rich deposits of stone. coal and ore. A. Toynbee saw this reason in the liberation of industry from restrictive regulation (A. Toynbee, The Industrial Revolution in England in the 18th century, translated from English, 2nd ed., M., 1912). Since the 1920s new explanations have been put forward. G. Griffith emphasized the role of demand from a growing population (G. Griffith, Population problems of the age of Malthus, Camb., 1926). J. Schumpeter sees in P. p. just a phase to continue. economic cycle (J. Schumpeter, Business cycles, v. 1-2, N. Y.-L., 1939). T. Ashton points to the fall in the discount rate as a factor that stimulated P. p. (T. S. Ashton, Industrial revolution 1760-1830, L. , 1948). W. Rostow is looking for Ch. cause in psychology. sphere (W. W. Rostow, Process of economic growth, N. Y., 1952). All listed. the authors, avoiding assessing the place of capitalism in the East. development of mankind and concealing that the development of industrial production was based on the merciless exploitation of the working people, they refuse a comprehensive analysis of the social prerequisites and social consequences of industrial production. historians (W. Rostow, X. Seton-Watson, and others) argue that industrialization in countries with different social systems is allegedly of the same type, and so on. hope to "substantiate" bourgeois-reformist concepts of "industrial society". The causes of P. p. lie in the aggregate of a number of economic, geographical. and socio-political. conditions. The most important prerequisite for P. p. was the so-called. initial accumulation, accompanied by a massive separation directly. producers from the means of production and turning them into hired workers. The basis of this process was the expropriation of the peasantry, which in England was carried out in the form of enclosures. English the revolution of the 17th century, which broke the feudal-absolutist regime, cleared the way for the bourgeois. development. The persistently and consistently pursued policy of mercantilism and the energetic colonial policy accelerated the enrichment of the propertied classes and the accumulation of capital. Already in the 17th century. in England, manufacture is widely developed (manufactory acquired paramount importance in the cloth industry), with its detailed division of labor, which prepared the prerequisites for the introduction of machine technology into production. The beginning of P. p. in England is considered to be the 60s. 18th century: in 1765, J. Hargreaves invented a mechanical. self-spinning wheel "Jenny", in 1767 T. Hayes created another machine for spinning, set in motion by the power of water (water machine). In 1779, the mules, invented by S. Crompton, combining the principles of both of these inventions, led to the end. the victory of machine technology in the spinning industry. Arkwright's first spinning mill began operating in 1769, laying the foundation for factory production. Somewhat later, weaving was also mechanized. Inventions in text. actually stimulated technical. thought and new methods of production in other industries and gave a strong impetus to the development of science. Chemistry contributed to the transformation of the processes of bleaching and dyeing of fabrics, the production of glass, and other industries. processes in a number of industries prom-sti. In connection with the reconstruction of the prom-sti at the new technical. The base greatly increased the demand for metal, but the poverty of England in forests limited the development of metallurgy, since charcoal was required for the production of metal. In the 70s. smelting of cast iron on a stone was widely used. coal, and in 1783-84 a method of puddling was developed, i.e., remelting cast iron into malleable iron also on stone. corner. This made it possible to increase the production of iron and expand the scope of its application, in particular, in mechanical engineering. J. Watt is still in con. 60s built the first working model of a steam engine, which, after a series of improvements in the 80s. became a new powerful source of mechanical energy. K ser. 19th century the development of technology for the production of machines made it possible to mechanize the production of the machines themselves, that is, to manufacture machines with the help of other machines. The development of the industry had a decisive impact on other branches of English. economy. The needs of the exchange caused technical. a revolution in transport (the appearance of the railway and the steamboat), which facilitated and accelerated the connection of England with the whole world and between the separate. districts of the country. Expansion of demand for food products from the growing mountains. population stimulated the development of x-va, encouraging him to improve his technique and closer ties with the market, as well as to deepen the division of labor; in districts close to cities and industrial. centers, intensive dairy and vegetable production arose. Capitalist org-tion prevailed in the countryside. The farmer has become a kind of capitalist. entrepreneur; but, unlike the industrialist, he invested his capital in rented land. In parallel with the spread of machine technology, the organization of production has also undergone changes: a machine and a factory with its large-scale production in the main. and leading industries supplanted manual labor and handicrafts. “Steam and new working machines,” according to F. Engels, “turned manufactory into modern large-scale industry and thereby revolutionized the entire basis of bourgeois society” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 20, p. 271). Progress in technology and organization of production caused far-reaching shifts in economics. structure of England. Prom-st moved into first place in terms of the share of nat produced by it. income and the number of people employed in it. Not satisfied with the inside market, english Entrepreneurs exported more and more of their products and at the same time imported foodstuffs and raw materials on an ever larger scale. Along with text. heavy industrial products appeared as export goods. English goods, thanks to the high level of technology and organization of production, successfully competed with goods from other countries in all markets of the world. England was turning into the "workshop of the world". Economical the power of England contributed to its political. amplification. "England," wrote Marx in 1853, "is the country where the truly stormy transformation of modern society begins" (ibid., vol. 8, p. 569). No less significant were geographical. and demographic shifts caused by P. p. The rapid growth of the population was accompanied by its huge concentration in cities. Entire districts of the country became the focus of powerful industry (the center of the county, South Wales, etc.). Enormous changes have also taken place in the social structure of the country. It was noticeably simplified: prom came to the fore. bourgeoisie and modern proletariat. Independent. the peasantry disappeared; other intermediate classes noticeably weakened. Already by 1850 the working class in England was approx. 60% of all self-employed. population. Completely separated from the means of production, he finally lost touch with the village. x-vom; the proportion of offspring in its composition increased. workers and more means. some focused on large enterprises. The class developed. English self-consciousness workers. At the other pole of society, prom was put forward. the bourgeoisie, which concentrated wealth and power in their hands. After the electoral reform of 1832, it gained predominance in parliament, and from the 40s. directly dictated the course of domestic and foreign policy. The antagonism of the two main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat - began to determine the entire development of English society. In the conditions of the approval of the capitalist. The production machine turned the worker into its appendage, negating professional skills even in an atmosphere of poor organization and insufficient class. consciousness of the working class, as well as huge unemployment, exacerbated by abrupt structural changes, made it less able to resist the greed of the entrepreneur. Particularly defenseless objects of exploitation were women and children, who constituted a huge part of the working class. Over the course of several For decades, the wages of workers have steadily fallen, the exploitation of labor has increased. Living conditions and nutrition of the working masses deteriorated sharply, and mortality increased. Burzh. the historiography of modern times is trying to challenge the facts, documentary data, and testimonies of contemporaries that depict the grave consequences of the P. p. for the working people. Arbitrarily selecting sources or building their concepts on unproven. speculation, bourgeois historians claim that machines and the factory system supposedly improved the conditions of workers, and they deny everything. the consequences of P. p. are associated with the remnants of the previous system: the preservation of domestic production and crafts (T. S. Ashton, Standard of life of the workers in England 1790-1830, "J. of Economic History", 1949, v. 9 , Supplement, D. Roberts, How cruel was the Victorian poor law?, "Historical Journal", 1963, v. 6, no. 1). The progressive historian E. Hobsbawm convincingly refutes these claims (E. J. Hobsbawm, British standard of living 1790-1850, "Economic History Review", 1957, August, Ser. 2, v. 10, No 1). Some bourgeois. Historians, forced to recognize the sharp deterioration in the living conditions of the working class during the years of the P. p., try to connect this deterioration with various internal political. and foreign policy events not related to P. p. argumentation, argued that the decline in the standard of living of workers during the P. p. took place only in otd. years, in particular during the years of wars with Napoleonic France, to-rye were allegedly Ch. or even unity. reason for this decline. The reaction to the unbearable conditions and the arbitrariness of the capitalists was the development of the labor movement. From the first spontaneous outbursts, often directed against machines (see Luddites), the working class gradually passes to an organized struggle for its rights - first economic, and then, as its class grows. consciousness, and political. His highest rise in the 1st floor. 19th century this struggle reaches in the Chartist movement (see Chartism). K ser. 19th century P. p. in England ended; factory and machine production prevailed in the main and leading industries; the dominance of prom was established. bourgeoisie in politics. life; formed prom. proletariat, class the struggle against the bourgeoisie took on a naked, undisguised form. English capitalism has entered a period of full maturity. P. item in other countries occurred later and was accompanied by profound changes in the social structure, similar to those processes that took place in England. An important role in this was played by the borrowing of technical. achievements and exchange of experience, which accelerated technical. progress. At the same time, the features of development and national conditions also predetermined the peculiar features of the P. st. in each country. In France, cars appeared at the very end of the 18th century. Great French. revolution, destroying the feud. system, accelerated the development of manufacturing production in France and its development into a factory. However, the small farms in the countryside were slowly losing ground; dispossession of the peasantry and urbanization were much slower here than in England, slowing down the pace of the initial. accumulation and folding vnutr. market. The development of the credit system contributed to the acceleration of all these processes, especially in the 1940s and 1950s. 19th century, when the reinforced railway began. construction. Completion of P. p. in France refers to the 50-60s. In the United States, P. production began in the second decade of the 19th century, primarily in the cold boom. prom-sti, which had a rich raw material base. The most important features of P. p. in the United States - mean. the role of foreigners, ch. arr. English, capital and the presence of huge territories. for a new settlement, released as a result of the pushing back and extermination of the Indians. The massive influx of immigrants from Europe compensated for. the slowness of the landlessness of farming, providing labor for the growing industry and contributing to the rapid growth of the population and internal. market. The emergence of prosperous farming contributed to the growth of the internal capacity. market, and land speculation in the West - the formation of large capital. Intensive railway construction, which began in the 20s, opened the way for the rapid development of the west. land and development with. x-va on the capitalist. way. K ser. 19th century P. p. in the north-east. US states has ended. In Germany, a serious obstacle to the P. p. was political. fragmentation of the country. The first capitalist enterprises character appear in Germany already in con. 18th century, but military. actions, the arena of which was Germany in the beginning. 19th century, delayed their development. After 1815, the cold boom began to grow rapidly in Germany. production Germ. cold-boom industry where English was used. machine, immediately began to develop on a factory basis. German education. Customs Union (1834) stimulated the development of silk, and then wool. prom. In the 30-40s. especially in the 50's and 60's. railway unfolded in Germany. construction. The Prussian pr-in actively participated in subsidizing the railway. construction, carried out in the interests of entrepreneurs a policy of trade and prom. expansion. One of the sources of financing for large industry was the capitalization of redemption payments. In the 50-60s. in Germany, heavy industry begins to develop rapidly, which leads to the predominance of the production of means of production here. P. p. in Germany ends in the 70-80s, after the formation of the German Empire. In Italy, P. p. began in the 40s. 19th century However, the political fragmentation and foreign domination delayed the economic. development of the country. After the unification of Italy, P. p. means. accelerated and ended by the end of the 19th century. In the countries of the East In Europe, the development of petty settlements was slowed down by the remnants of feudal lands. relations and serfdom. The existence of many small peasantry, loosely connected with the market, hindered the process of the initial. accumulation and folding vnutr. market. In Czech lands P. p. covers the period from the beginning. 19th century until the 70s. In Russia, P. p. began in the late 30s - early. 40s 19th century, primarily in the cold-boom. prom-sti, but competition English. yarn somewhat delayed the development of the industry. (See the Industrial Revolution in Russia section below for more details). Zh.-d. construction, which began here in the 1940s, stimulated the development of metallurgy. However, under the conditions of serfdom, with Krom DOS. the cadres of the working class consisted of non-free, the development of industry was slow. The completion of P. p. in Russia refers to the end of the 70s - early. 80s 19th century N. A. Erofeev. Moscow. In Japan, P. p. began in the last decades of the 19th century. on the ground prepared by the Meiji revolution (see Meiji Isin). The state actively contributed to the development of heavy and mining industries, which, however, was in the mean. least focused on the production of armaments (equipment for light industry was imported b. h. from abroad). P. p. in Japan finally ends after the 2nd World War. In other non-European countries the dominance of foreign capital, on the one hand, accelerated the onset of the P. p., and on the other hand, it slowed down its completion. In order to export raw materials and sell their consumer products, England and other powers begin with ser. 19th century build in India, China, Egypt, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina and some other countries. and develop fab.-head. prom-st for the processing of products with. x-va and mining industry. However, these industries industry and transport were completely dependent on the import of equipment from the metropolis. By the end of World War II, only in some Latin Americans. countries operated separate machine building. factories, in the colonies of the same and other dependent countries of Asia and Africa, the production of modern. tools were missing. This made it impossible to mechanize the main. spheres of production, and the existing large enterprises and well. were forced to use physically and morally obsolete imported equipment. Under these conditions, production relates. surplus value was extremely difficult and the production of absolute surplus value prevailed (prolongation of the working day, intensification of labor, etc.). In countries that have won political independence after the 2nd World War, P. p. was not completed by the time of their release. P.'s incompleteness of the item in developing countries and those countries, to-rye are still in columns. dependence, affects the structure as a total self-acting. population and the working class itself. Share of factory-manager the proletariat among those employed in the people. x-ve is extremely small, and in its composition the proportion of workers in the manufacturing industries of heavy industry is insignificant. Local entrepreneurs pay for their tech. dependence on foreign monopolies part of the surplus value (through high prices for equipment, materials and technical services). The problem of gaining economic independence coincides for developing countries with the task of building nat. prom. V. I. PAVLOV Moscow. Lit. (except for the indication in the article): K. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23; Engels F., The situation of the working class in England, ibid., vol. 2; Lenin V. I., The development of capitalism in Russia, Poln. coll. soch., 5th ed., vol. 3 (vol. 3); Mantoux, P., The Industrial Revolution of the 18th Century in England, trans. from French, M., 1937; Erofeev N. A., Industrial Revolution in England, M., 1963; Dunham A. L., La révolution industrielle en France (1815-1848), P., 1953; Henderson W. O., The state and the industrial revolution in Prussia 1740-1870, Liv., 1958; Mr?zek O., V?voj prumyslu v cesk?ch zemich a na Slovensku od manufaktury do roku 1918, (Praha), 1964. See also lit. to the next section of the article. Industrial Revolution in Russia. P. p. in Russia began, according to the majority of owls. researchers, in con. 30s - early. 40s 19th century Especially intensively he passed from the con. 40s The transition from manufactory to factory began first of all in the most capitalistically developed branches of industry (cotton), and then gradually extended to other branches as well. The replacement of manual labor by machine labor, which sharply increased labor productivity, was a huge leap forward in the development of production. about-va. However, for a successful transition from manufactory to factory, a means was required. a layer of free wage workers, a wide market for the sale of prom. products and the influx of large capitals into production. The creation of these conditions was hampered to a great extent by serfdom. Therefore, in the pre-reform period, the transition from manufactory to factory led to a further aggravation of the conflict between the old and the new, bringing the fall of serfdom closer. The indicator of completion of technical restructuring of the industry is the onset of the moment when in the leading industries, the production of the main. the mass of products is manufactured by enterprises equipped with a system of machines driven by steam power. According to V.K. Yatsunsky, in the pre-reform. period only in cotton (namely, in spinning and calico printing), sugar beet and stationery industries of the main. the mass of products was manufactured at factory-type enterprises. In the rest of the leading industries, the transition from manual labor to machine labor in the main. ended by the end. 70s - early 80s 19th century In 1879 in the branches of the text. industry, excluding silk, with the help of machines produced from 54.8% (cloth and woolen) to 96.3% (paper spinning) of all products. Metalworking enterprises with machines in all industries produced 86.3% of all products, in the sugar beet industry - 85.1%. In 1882, in the mining industry, puddling ovens, which replaced the blooming furnaces, gave approx. 90% of the total metal, and 63% of the energy. capacities of ferrous metallurgy accounted for steam plants. Even in the furniture industry, 45.2% of products were manufactured by factories. And only in leather. production was dominated by manual labor (71.8% of total production). Techn. re-equipment of transport is also in the main. ended in reforms. period (some economists and historians believe that P. p. ended before 1861). In the 60-70s. 19th century more than 20 thousand km of railroads were built. etc., i.e., the main backbone of the railway was created. Russian networks. An important feature of the technical revolution in Russia was the weak development of a number of branches of the machine-building industry (primarily machine tool building). The beginning and end of the transition from manufactory to factory was connected with the beginning and end of the formation of the proletariat as a class. The proletarian is not just a wage worker, but a permanent wage worker, i.e., a worker who has completely broken ties with the independent. agricultural or handicraft production and receives all the means of subsistence by selling his labor power to the capitalists. Similarly, the proletarian class is not just a stratum of wage-workers, but a broad stratum of permanent wage-workers. Only the factory creates such a layer, since the use of machines, which sharply increased the cost of production means, justified itself only with continuous production throughout the year. The formation of a layer of permanent hired workers began in Russia in the era of serfdom. However, these workers were not yet proletarians, since for the most part they did not have personal freedom. Only the abolition of serfdom turned the permanent hired workers of the pre-reform era into genuine proletarians. After the reform of 1861, the formation of the proletariat proceeded at a rapid pace. His sources were prom. workers of the serf era, landless. and little earth. peasants, as well as the peasantry, ruined in the process of stratification. To the beginning 80s in Russia in the main completed the formation of the proletariat as a class. Permanent hired workers at that time made up the bulk of all prom. workers. In 1886-93 in 9 factory districts of Europe. Russia permanent workers accounted for 71.8% of all workers. In districts with a highly developed industry, the proportion of permanent wage workers was even higher (Petersburg - 89.2%, Moscow - 80.2%, Vladimir - 80.5%). In the beginning. 80s among factory managers workers were dominated not only by permanent wage workers, but already formed numerous. offspring layer. proletarians. The transition from manufactory to factory was also a decisive stage in the formation of the bourgeois class. In the course of the P. p., a layer of large-scale industrialism took shape and became the dominant one. the bourgeoisie, which pushed into the background the previously dominant representatives of bargaining. capital. In 1879, in the manufacturing industries, enterprises with the number of workers St. 100, accounting for only 4.4% of all enterprises, gave 54.8% of the total production. The formation of a layer of the big bourgeoisie was facilitated by autocracy (patronizing customs policy, state orders, guaranteed profits, etc.). Thus, in the process of industrial production, large-scale industrial production arose and became dominant in the country. production, the capitalist classes were formed. about-va, that is, the capitalist finally established itself. way of production and the inherent contradictions took shape. The introduction of machines, which led to the dominance of large-scale production, gave rise to a contradiction between societies. the nature of production and private ownership. form of appropriation, i.e., led to the emergence of DOS. contradictions of capitalism. Main economic the expression of this contradiction was the cyclical character of capitalism. production, periodicals. industrial crises. The first crises in Russia occurred during the era of the P. p. The social expression of this contradiction was the antagonism between labor and capital, the completion of the formation of capitalist classes. society has made the struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie the main, determining stream of all class and societal.-political. contradictions in the country. Lit .: Lenin V.I., The development of capitalism in Russia, Poln. coll. cit., vol. 3, ch. 5-8 (v. 3); Strumilin S. G., Industrial. coup, M., 1944; Yatsunsky V.K., Industrial. revolution in Russia. (On the problem of interaction between production forces and production relations), "VI", 1952, No 12; his own, Large-scale industry of Russia in 1790-1860, in the book: Essays on economics. history of Russia in the first half. XIX century, M., 1959; Pajitnov K. A., On the issue of industry. coup in Russia, "VI", 1952, No 5; Kovalchenko I. D., Completion of industrial. coup. Formation of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, in the book: Essays on the history of the USSR. 1861-1904, M., 1960, p. 86-90; Rashin A. G., Formation of the working class in Russia. Historical and economic. essays, M., 1958; Ivanov L. M., Continuity of factory labor in the formation of the proletariat in Russia, in Sat. In: The working class and the labor movement in Russia. 1861-1917, M., 1966. I. D. Kovalchenko. Moscow.

The introduction of machines in enterprises, the replacement of a water engine by a steam engine meant a change from the manufacturing period of capitalism, which was based on manual technology with a large division of labor, to a new, higher stage in the development of capitalism: the stage of large-scale industry, which is characterized by machine technology and division of labor.
The widespread introduction of machinery, possible only in combination with wage labor and the capitalist form of production, leads to an industrial revolution.
In England, where machines were widely used before other countries, the industrial revolution took place in the last decades of the 18th century.
In Russia, due to the dominance of serfdom, which caused her economic backwardness, the industrial revolution took place much later. It began in the pre-reform period, in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century, when steam engines began to be used and machines were introduced in many, but still far from all, industries, and it ended already in the post-reform period, in the 70s and partly in the 80s of the XIX century.
Some Soviet historians, referring to isolated facts of the use of machines, wrote that the manufacturing period of capitalism ends in Russia in the 90s of the 18th century. on the grounds that in 1795 the first steam engine was installed at Byrd's machine-building plant. However, this argument is not at all convincing. One machine does not revolutionize the technology of all other enterprises. It is no coincidence, of course, that the steam engine invented by Polzunov perished, as well as many other inventions buried under the serf economy, made then and later in Russia, since capitalist manufactories in Russia at that time did not have sufficient conditions for developing into a capitalist factory. But not only the use of one machine, but also the use of them in a larger, but still single number, "sporadically", did not yet mean the beginning in the first quarter of the 19th century. industrial revolution in Russia. More serious shifts in the use of machines in Russia have been observed since the 30s and even from the 40s of the 19th century. At this time, steam is used to a greater extent as a motive force and various machines (spinning, mechanical, weaving machines, etc.) are used.
So, in 1846 in Russia there were 700 thousand spinning spindles powered by steam, and in 1859 - about 1600 thousand, and before the reform of 1861 - 2 million spindles. Spinning mills use spinning machines, which since 1842 have been allowed to be exported from England.
Before the reform of 1861, several thousand mechanical looms were used in Russia, calico-printing and calico-printing machines were used. But along with this, it must also be pointed out that Russia, due to the dominance of serfdom, lagged far behind England, which was then an advanced capitalist country, where at that time there were already 30 million mechanical spindles and 400 thousand steam looms.
Of the other industries in which mechanical energy is relatively widely used, beet sugar should be noted. In the sugar beet industry in 1848-1849. factories using steam power produced 44% of all products, and in 1860-1861 - 85%. Even in the metallurgical industry, the most backward, rolling mills for iron smelting appear, puddling is used, and experiments are being made on the Bessemer method of blowing iron. Puddling was used in 1837 at the state-owned Kamsko-Votkinsk plant, in the 40s at eleven plants in the Urals, at two Moscow plants, etc. According to S. G. Strumilin, before the reform of 1861, puddling ovens gave about half metal. The replacement of water energy with steam at the Ural factories was slow, however, even here, before the reform, steam engines and water turbines provided 18% of motor energy.
The industrial revolution that had begun found its expression in the field of transport, where steam engines began to be used on steamboats, and the first railways were built. In this regard, Russian engineers and craftsmen with their inventions are in many cases ahead of Western inventors, but due to the inertia of the serfdom, which hampered progress in Russia in the field of technology, many Russian inventions remained under wraps and were not used. An example is the construction in 1833 of the first steam locomotive by the father and son Cherepanovs. However, their invention was not realized and in 1837 steam locomotives were ordered to Russia from England. An example of the inertia of the feudal lords and the inhibitory role of the feudal-serf superstructure can be the fact that despite the construction of a steam engine for the Hercules steamship in 1832, which was invented in England later, only at the end of the 30s, the Russian navy went to war 1855 was sailing, and English and French at its core was steam. In 1840, there were 16 steamships in Russia, in 1850 - 99, and in 1860 - 339.
The existing feudal-serf superstructure hindered the development of productive forces, in particular, hindered the development of technology, and therefore the industrial revolution in Russia dragged on for such a long time and ended only in the post-reform period - in the 60-70s and partly in the 80s of the XIX century. But in spite of the obstruction of the obsolete relations of production, the forces of production steadily made their way, and in Russia the production of machines within the country increased. An indicator of the technical shifts that took place in the second quarter of the 19th century is the emergence in Russia of machine-building workshops and factories, the number of which in 1851 was 29, with a cost of their production of 478 thousand rubles, and in 1860 - 99 enterprises, with the cost of production is 7954 thousand rubles.
But these factories could not meet the needs that grew in connection with the use of machines in the 30-50s, especially in the textile industry, and therefore the import of tools and machines from abroad plays an increasingly important role.
All these data show that in the 30-50s of the 19th century, compared with the first quarter of the 19th century. there is a significant growth of Russian industry.
This growth took place on the basis of the strengthening of capitalist manufactory and factories, the further development of which required the abolition of serfdom. Along with this, in the 30-50s of the XIX century. the crisis and decomposition of the serf corvee and quitrent economy became extremely aggravated.

Industrial thaw in Russia: causes, prerequisites, lagging factors

The beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia remains a controversial issue today. There are several opinions regarding the beginning of this historical process.

Historian-economist Stanislav Gustavovich Strumilin was the first to name the chronology of the modernization of Russian industry. He designated it within the framework of 1830-1860.

Modern historiography considers the time period from 1850 to 1880 more reasonable.

Prerequisites for a coup:

Scientific and technological progress - the invention of steam engines, machine tools and machines that minimize manual labor.
The gradual introduction of capitalist relations - the use of civilian workers, the accumulation of capital.

Only by the middle of the 19th century did Russia begin to move onto capitalist lines. But there were many factors that slowed down the industrial revolution. The main and most significant was serfdom. The cheapness of serf labor caused the reluctance of large industrialists to introduce new technologies. Voluntary labor was more a necessity than an aspiration. The internal and external markets were amorphous and not very dynamic. The state stimulated the development of production. The agricultural sector was underdeveloped, which, in turn, affected the dynamics of the domestic national market.

Despite the fact that the industrial revolution in Russia began much later than in Europe and the United States, it led to an innovative type of economic development and the formation of new social strata of the population.

Characteristics of the Industrial Revolution

Despite significant pressure from the state, the industrial revolution started, although it was sluggish.

The abolition of serfdom in 1861 led to the formation of new social classes - the proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie. Freelance workers, formerly serfs, rushed to the cities to get work in large factories and plants, albeit for meager wages. The huge resources of the state and cheap labor gave such enterprises multimillion-dollar profits, which in the best possible way contributed to the development of production and its relative industrialization.

The government is starting to take measures to activate such sectors of the economy as industry and trade. Customs duties on raw materials were repeatedly raised. The import of innovative equipment and the export of finished products were encouraged.

Since 1861, industries such as:

coal mining;
metallurgy;
shipbuilding;
construction of railways;
light industry: textile and cotton industries.

The banking and credit sector, after a long decline, has entered a positive direction. More than 40 banks, more than 200 insurance and credit enterprises were created. In addition, the contributions of state banks to the economy have increased several times. In such favorable conditions, an intensive influx of foreign capital begins.

Reforming Russia

Historians associate the beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia not only with the elimination of serfdom, but also with the widespread reform of the state.

The financial reform of 1860 - the creation of a state bank.
Tax reform, 1863 - introduction of a unified system of excises and patents.
Zemstvo reform of 1864 - the activation of handicrafts through the organization of artels.
"Regulations on duties on the right to trade and crafts" led to the equalization of the estates in the possibility of engaging in private business.

Stages of the industrial revolution

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the middle of the 19th century and took place in three stages:

1861-1881 the birth of capitalism, the reform of the state, the leap in light and heavy industries.

80-90s of the XIX century - the peak of the industrial "spring".

1890s of the 19th century - 1905 - the crisis of capitalism, social and economic life, the completion of the industrial revolution in Russia.

The results of the industrial "boom"

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the middle of the 19th century, brought the serf state with a backward economy to a new stage of development. Russia has entered into a world-historical process, which led to a leap not only in the economy, industry, social sphere, but also significantly changed the worldview of the population of the state. The formation of capitalist relations in one way or another led to a revolution, the overthrow of the monarchy as one of the remnants of the old system.

Nevertheless, the industrial "spring" in the serf state had its own specifics. Features of the industrial revolution in Russia consisted in its "lightning" pace. In a monarchical state, the transition to a machine type of production was not accompanied by a transition to an industrial or agro-industrial type of economy. Despite the leap in industry that took place, it did not lead to the rapid development of mechanical engineering.