The economic policy of Catherine II was strongly influenced by the growth of commodity production in agriculture and the increasing importance of money in the national economy. Intensive processes were also underway in the formation of an all-Russian market and the specialization of Russian regions. The foreign policy of the empire also influenced the development of the economy. As always, wars (and there were many of them during the reign of Catherine II) were expensive for the treasury and the national economy, but their successful consequences for the empire - the conquest of new territories - had a beneficial effect on economic development. The divisions of Poland meant the inclusion of economically strong areas in the empire, and therefore in the country's economy. The consequences of the conquest of the Black Sea region went far beyond the immediate imperial interests. The vast undeveloped black earth steppes of New Russia, Crimea and southern Ukraine found themselves drawn into economic development. All this led to an increase in agricultural production, an active resettlement movement, accelerated the creation of infrastructure, the construction of cities (including ports), and the production of commercial grain and its export abroad sharply increased.
The volume of industrial production also increased continuously. Having overtaken England in pig iron smelting in 1740, Russia increased this superiority until 1780 and brought the lead to 70 thousand tons (Russia - 110 thousand, and England - 40 thousand tons). And only in the last two decades, thanks to the beginning of the industrial revolution in England, did this gap begin to narrow: in 1790, Russia smelted 130.5 thousand, and England - 80 thousand tons, in 1800 - 162.5 thousand and 156, respectively. thousand tons In general, in other industries, serf production under Catherine II had not yet exhausted its capabilities.
This naturally affected the country’s consistently positive foreign trade balance. Throughout the reign of Catherine II, Russia was a country primarily of export - both raw materials and industrial goods. If in the first half of the 1760s, on average, goods worth 11.7 million were exported from Russia per year, and 8.7 million rubles were imported, then in the first five years of the 1790s, the foreign trade balance became even more active: when importing 34 million rub. export amounted to 43.5 million rubles.
In the middle of the 18th century, the formation of the banking system took place. In 1754, the State Loan Bank was opened, consisting of the Noble Loan Bank with an authorized capital of 700 thousand rubles. and Merchant Bank. Both gave loans at a low annual rate with installments over several years. The noble loan bank served only nobles on the security of jewelry and populated estates. In order to support the bankrupt nobles, another bank was created in 1786 - Borrowed, the interest rate of which was increased to 8%, and the loan repayment period increased to 20 years. Noble guardianship carried out the repayment of the debt of bankrupt debtors. The Merchant Bank, together with the Bank for Eastern Trade established in Astrakhan in 1764, as well as the Armenian Loan Bank (1779), soon became an important factor in the economic life of Russia.
Bill of exchange law developed rapidly, and the Copper Bank opened bill of exchange offices that facilitated long-distance trade. The banking system became an indispensable part of the economy. This became especially obvious with the organization of the Assignation Bank with two branches in Moscow and St. Petersburg and the introduction of banknotes into circulation. The first paper money appeared in 1769, and their introduction was aimed, on the one hand, at ousting copper coins from circulation, and on the other, at ensuring the replenishment of financial reserves in connection with the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish War. The bills introduced earlier only partially saved the situation, and the establishment of paper money became a radical way out of the situation.
Five-ruble banknote of Catherine's time
The initiator of this important reform was Count Jacob Sievers, who in 1768 submitted a special note to the Empress on the introduction of paper money. The experience of introducing banknotes turned out to be extremely successful. Society completely trusted the treasury, and in the first 17 years of banknote circulation, a unique situation was achieved when the value of banknotes even exceeded the value of silver money! Only since 1782, when the authorities, wanting to fill the budget deficit, sharply increased the issue of paper money, did confidence in them begin to decline. It cannot be said that the financial situation of the country during the reign of Catherine II was unstable. The budget deficit - an inevitable consequence of huge military expenditures and expenses for the development of Novorossiya - by the mid-1780s was significant and amounted to 12 million rubles. with income of 50 million and expenses of 62 million rubles. However, on the whole, it was successfully repaid by skillful financial policies. To achieve this, both traditional means were used (damage to coins, increased taxes and duties), and new ones - the issue of banknotes, which was combined with an appeal to foreign loans. Without foreign loans, it is difficult to imagine the economy of Russia, which was almost continuously at war in the late 1780s and early 1790s.
Nevertheless, assessing the economic situation of Catherine’s reign, we can say that the government of Catherine II conducted its policy in fairly favorable economic conditions and had significant freedom of internal political maneuver, which the empress was even able to expand with her actions in the field of trade, industrial and financial policy. All this allowed the Austrian Emperor Joseph II to jokingly say about Catherine II:
Of all the monarchs of Europe, she is the only one who is truly rich. She spends a lot everywhere, but has no debts; she values her banknotes at whatever she wants; if she wanted, she could introduce leather money.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA UNDER CATHERINE II MBOU "Lyceum No. 12, Novosibirsk, teacher of VKK Stadnichuk T.M.
During the second half of the 18th century, the population of Russia doubled. It increased from 18 to 36 million people.
There were about 630 cities in the state.
In the 18th century, Russia still remained an agricultural country. About 4% of the country's population lived in cities. The majority (more than 90%) were peasants. Of these, more than half were serfs. It was peasant labor that formed the basis of the Russian economy in the 17th century.
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
However, in the 2/2 of the 18th century in Russia there was a development of capitalist relations - an economic system, in
in which goods and services are produced for
selling for profit, widely
hired labor is used.
In Russian agriculture, the emergence of capitalist features was largely due to the nobility's need for money. Leading a luxurious life, the nobles emphasized their special status. This required large funds.
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
In 2/2 XVIII century. There were two main categories of peasants.
- Serfs (privately owned) replenished their numbers through grants
- Class of state peasants
- Monastery peasants after
Catherine's serf souls
favorites.
were the peoples of the Volga region and
Siberia, the Baltic peasantry,
Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus,
Crimea, Transcaucasia, Bashkiria,
New Russia, North Caucasus.
secularization of church lands
became state in status.
Depending on the fertility of the land, the territory of the European part of Russia was usually divided into regions: Black Earth Region - the most fertile (Central Lands) and Non-Black Earth Region (North). The Steppe strip was also identified.
In the Black Earth Region, where it was profitable to grow and sell agricultural products, the nobles decided to increase the corvee (up to 6 days a week). The more land the landowner had, the greater his income.
In non-chernozem provinces the land yielded a meager harvest. Here it was beneficial for the landowner to immediately receive money from his serfs - the distribution of the peasants' transfer to quitrent.
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
In the second half of the 18th century. a phenomenon appeared called the month, when landowners completely deprived peasants of the right to use the land and transferred them to work on their land, for each month they worked they were paid in natural products and clothing.
Corvée is the free, forced labor of a dependent peasant working with personal equipment on the farm of the land owner.
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
In the second half of the 18th century. Peasants were increasingly engaged in otkhodnichestvo - this is temporary, most often seasonal work of peasants in the Russian Empire outside their place of permanent residence, when they need to “move away”, leave the village or village.
Quirk is one of the duties of dependent peasants, which consists of paying tribute to the landowner in food or money.
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
The reign of Catherine II was the heyday of serfdom, it became stricter and spread to new lands: Ukraine, Crimea, Ciscaucasia.
- In 1763, a decree was issued according to which the peasants themselves
- In 1765 the landowners received
- In 1767 the peasants lost
expenses for
suppression.
the right to exile one's own
serfs in Siberia
hard labor without trial or investigation.
right to complain
the empress on her own
landowners.
Some landowners tried to introduce multi-field crop rotation, apply technical innovations, and grow new crops and frost-resistant varieties. However, within the country, all these measures were very insignificant.
INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT
In the second half of the 18th century, Russian industry developed successfully:
- The needs of the Russian army were constantly growing. Supplying the army became a prime necessity.
- In the second half of the 18th century, the demand for Russian goods abroad increased - iron, canvas, hemp.
- The state stimulated the development of private industry. Law 1762
forbidden to buy for years
serf factories,
therefore, after 1762 on
private enterprises have become
apply
civilian labor.
- In the second half of the 18th century, Russia became the largest producer and exporter of iron to European countries. Its production was dominated by Ural factories. The Southern Urals became the center of copper production. Gold mining also began in the Urals.
- Silver mining continued in Transbaikalia, and new deposits were discovered there.
- The Russian textile industry has developed in the central regions. In the south of the country, where sheep farming was widespread.
- In the second half of the 18th century, the tobacco, distillery, leather, glass and paper industries also developed in Russia.
Small-scale handicraft production was preserved.
There were several types of manufacture:
- state,
- merchant,
- landowner (patrimonial) and
- peasant.
During this period, famous entrepreneurial dynasties began: the Morozovs, the Ryabushinskys, the Garelins, the Prokhorovs.
Savva Vasilievich Morozov, a serf peasant of a landowner from the Moscow province, laid the foundation of the Nikolskaya cotton manufactory “S. Morozov's son and co." He had five sons, from whom four branches of the famous Morozov business emerged.
INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT
Many traditional crafts grew into industrial production:
- the textile industry of the peasants of Count Sheremetev grew into the Ivanovo textile manufactories,
- the famous Gzhel near Moscow - painted ceramic dishes,
- painting on wood by craftsmen from the village of Khokhloma, Nizhny Novgorod province.
In the second half of the 18th century. The formation of the all-Russian market continued. Relations between different regions of the country actively developed, their specialization deepened, roads and canals were built, for example, the Vyshnevolotsk, Tikhvin, and Mariinsk water transport systems.
DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE AND TRANSPORT ROUTES
Moscow and St. Petersburg became important shopping centers in Russia. The most important fairs were Makaryevskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, and Korennaya.
- Wool, leather, and fish came from the Volga region.
- From the Urals - iron and products made from it.
- The non-Black Earth region was famous for its handicrafts.
- The north traded salt and fish.
- The northwestern lands supplied
- Siberia and the North
flax and hemp.
- fur.
In the 1760-1780s. The formation of the all-Russian grain market began. By the middle of the 18th century. Russia has begun to occupy an important place in the world food market. Grain exports amounted to 70 thousand quarters worth 114 thousand rubles.
silver per year. Main
trading partner
Russian Empire in this
period was England,
active trading
was carried out with
France,
Prussia.
DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE AND TRANSPORT ROUTES
Foreign trade was carried out through the ports of the Baltic and Black Seas. By the end of the 18th century, Russia was selling more than it was buying (exports - about 24 million rubles, imports - about 18 million). 80-90% of imports were industrial products (dyes, leather, wines, fruits, haberdashery, earthenware and porcelain products)
FINANCE OF RUSSIA
In 1769, Russia began issuing paper money - banknotes. Banks were established in St. Petersburg and Moscow to exchange copper money for paper money. Later, in 1786, there was
The State Assignation Bank was established with
credit functions. Large expenditures on foreign policy, the needs of the army, navy and administrative apparatus led to a chronic budget deficit. In the last year
reign
Catherine II their course
one ruble
the banknotes were
68.5 kopecks.
In the second half of the 18th century, capitalist relations gradually developed in Russia.
- In agriculture, this was expressed in a partial transition to market relations (development of commercial farming, otkhodnichestvo).
- In industry - the emergence of a labor market, the development of non-noble entrepreneurship.
- In trade – growth in trade between regions of the country, successful development of foreign trade (increase in Russian exports).
However, the existence of the feudal-serf system in Russia influenced the forms of Russian capitalism.
- In agriculture, this was expressed in the strengthening of corvee labor and its extreme form - the month.
- In industry, there was no need to develop and modernize enterprises, since serfs worked for them for free.
- In trade - the predominance of the export of raw materials rather than industrial goods.
Catherine II the Great (1729-96)
German Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta AUGUST
- the official title of the Byzantine empress. Anhalt-Zerbst. Since 1744 - in Russia. From 1745 the wife of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future emperor EMPEROR
- a title adopted in Russia by Tsar Peter I on October 22, 1721, during celebrations on the occasion of the holiday... Peter III.
By nature, Catherine was endowed with intelligence and a strong character. Arriving in Russia, she tried to learn the Russian language and customs of the country in which she was to spend her whole life. Catherine read books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature and was rightfully considered one of the most educated women of her time. Her main entertainment is hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The Empress corresponded with Voltaire and French encyclopedists, and left autobiographical “Notes”. After two unsuccessful pregnancies, in 1754 Catherine gives birth to a son, who is immediately taken away from her, named Paul and deprived of the opportunity to raise him, but only occasionally to see him. On December 9, 1758, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, which caused Peter great discontent. Peter III constantly insulted and humiliated his wife.
After the overthrow of Peter III on September 2 (September 13), 1762, Ekaterina Alekseevna was crowned in Moscow and became the Empress of All Russia with the name Catherine II.
Enlightened absolutism.
Enlightened absolutism is a policy pursued in the second half of the 18th century by a number of monarchical countries in Europe and aimed at eliminating the remnants of the medieval system in favor of capitalist relations. Brought up on the ideas of 18th-century philosophy, absolute monarchs strove for the “common good”, which was achieved in the state. Hobbes is considered the founder of the theory of “enlightened absolutism”.
Its essence lies in the idea of a secular state, in the desire of absolutism to place central power above all else. “Enlightenment” literature of the 18th century, which set itself the task of a complete critique of the old order, found ardent support in absolutism: the aspirations of philosophers and politicians agree that reform should be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. Therefore, a characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism is the union of monarchs and philosophers who wanted to subordinate the state to pure reason.
In literature, “enlightened absolutism” was greeted with enthusiasm. The entire political worldview of the leader of the century, Voltaire, is enlightened absolutism.
The process of enlightened absolutism covered all the countries of Europe, except England, Poland and France: England had already achieved what enlightened absolutism was striving for, in Poland there was no royal absolutism and the gentry dominated, and Louis XV and Louis XVI, who reigned in France, were not able to take took on the role of initiators of the reform, as a result of which the previous system was destroyed by the revolution.
The central figures in this era were Frederick II of Prussia (1740-1786) and Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790).
Domestic policy
Legislative Commission
It consisted of 565 deputies, in which all segments of the population were represented, except for serfs (1767-1768). The main goal is to clarify the people's needs for reform. The first meeting took place in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow. Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.
Public Administration Reform
In 1763, the Senate was reformed. It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and headed by the prosecutor general. The powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court.
Elimination of Cossack local self-government in Ukraine and the Don. In 1774, the Ukrainian hetmanate was liquidated, and in 1775 the Zaporozhye army was abolished, and the usual system of provincial institutions was introduced for the Don Cossacks.
Russia was divided into 50 provinces, headed by governors. The provinces were divided into counties (about 500 counties in total). To assist governors, state and judicial chambers and other state and social institutions were created. The governors were subordinate to the Senate. The district was headed by a police captain, who was elected once every 3 years by the district assembly of nobles.
Economic policy
The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1780, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). In 1768, paper money - banknotes - was introduced into circulation.
Social policy
- pedagogical reform, according to the Austrian model. In the 1780s there was
A network of city schools based on a class-lesson system has been created.
Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. - An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, and a library were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.
- In Moscow and St. Petersburg, educational homes for street children appeared, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.
- Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created. New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened.
National politics
After the annexation of the lands of Western Rus', which were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attaching them to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, within which Jews had the right to live. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence.
In 1763-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in the provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers.
Class politics
The rights of the nobility under Catherine were significantly expanded: in 1762, the Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility was published, which gave the nobles the right not to serve if they did not want to. In 1775, a manifesto was published, according to which the nobles were allowed to freely establish any industrial enterprises. In 1785, a Letter of Commendation to the Nobility was issued, which secured the monopoly right of the nobility to own land, mineral resources and serfs.
The peasantry, on the contrary, lost the remnants of their rights; internal policy in this area was aimed at strengthening serfdom: peasants were forbidden to complain about the landowners, take an oath, and take farm-outs and contracts. The landowner received the right not only to exile peasants to Siberia, but also to send them to hard labor (law of 1765).
At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.
The clergy lost their autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.
Citizens, divided into 6 categories depending on their occupation and financial situation, received a number of privileges according to the Charter of Cities issued in 1785.
Religious politics
In 1773 a law on tolerance of all faiths is issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other faiths; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of churches of any faith.
Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.
Under Catherine II, the persecution of Old Believers ceased.
The free migration of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.
By decree of Catherine II in 1787. In the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, the complete Arabic text of the Islamic holy book of the Koran was printed for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.
Buddhism also received government support in regions where it was traditionally practiced.
In the “Table of Ranks” (1722), the personal principle received national significance. In the era of Peter the Great, a new procedure for serving was introduced. In previous times, the main criterion for promotion was nobility of origin. The “Table of Ranks” put in first place not origin, but the personal abilities, education and practical skills of the nobleman. Now the career ladder consisted of 14 steps or ranks. The sons of well-born fathers had preference only during palace receptions, but they did not receive any rank unless they served. At the same time, the “Table of Ranks” made it possible for representatives of other classes to receive noble ranks.
Peasant question. Agriculture and land use under Catherine II
Technical thought was very well developed in Russia. Much earlier than in Western Europe, Russian inventors created a universal steam engine, lathe, rolling mills and shafts. But these inventions have not become widely used in production. The state's disinterest in the use of technical innovations and the general routine of the economy led to the fact that by the end of the 18th century. Russia began to lag behind European countries that had already completed the industrial revolution.
The marketability of agriculture directly depended on the growth of large cities and large fishing villages. The urban population and the army had an increased demand for food products. The volume of agricultural products exported has increased. This created a large market for agriculture. The demand for industrial and artisan products has also increased greatly.
In many cities there were guest courtyards with numerous shops. Traders, merchants, artisans, and peasants traded in the markets, which were open daily. Fairs played a major role in trade, of which there were more than 1,000 at the end of the century.
There were many trading peasants walking around the villages, exchanging small household goods for commercial waste from the peasant economy - leather, hemp, bristles. But the merchants did their best to hinder the activities of their competitors.
The government, supporting the merchant class, encouraged the rapid development of domestic trade. In the 80s XVIII century merchants were divided into 3 guilds according to the degree of wealth. Catherine II freed merchants from personal conscription, corporal punishment and the poll tax. Merchants had to pay 1% of declared income to the state treasury.
With access to Europe through seaports, foreign trade began to actively develop. An active foreign trade balance was maintained throughout the reign of Catherine II. The government continued to adhere to a policy of protectionism, imposing high duties on imported goods. England has traditionally remained an active foreign trade partner of Russia, buying timber, canvas, hemp, and Ural iron. Permanent partners were Denmark, Austria, France, and Portugal. Joint trading companies began to be created with Turkey, Persia, Khiva, Bukhara and other eastern countries.
Throughout the 18th century. The state budget experienced a constant deficit caused by endless military campaigns, the growth of the state apparatus, and the high wastefulness of members of the imperial family. Taxes were collected with large arrears, and the nobles practically did not pay taxes. A further increase in the tax burden was impossible and the government decided to issue paper money to replenish the budget. Catherine II decided to switch to issuing paper money - banknotes. But their value soon depreciated due to the cessation of the free exchange of banknotes for silver money.
Another source of replenishment of the treasury was government loans. By the end of the century, Russia's external debt amounted to 41.1 million rubles. The total public debt, taking into account tax farming, the issue of paper money, etc., amounted to 216 million rubles.
In the middle of the 18th century. The first banks appear in Russia. They were state-owned; it was forbidden to create private banks. This entire system was slow and ineffective.
Socio-economic policy of Catherine II. Nobility and the system of local government in the second half of the 18th century.
In 1764, Catherine II sharply limited the economic power of the church. She converted many church lands into state property. Millions of monastic peasants subsequently became state peasants.
To revive and develop the country's economy, the empress invited foreigners to come to settle in Russia, promising tax benefits, preservation of language and culture, and religious freedom.
Gradually, Catherine II began to switch to a policy of enlightened absolutism. It was necessary to streamline the entire system of legislation of the Russian Empire. The “Order of Empress Catherine II given to the Commission on the drafting of a new Code” was published. The main idea of this document was that, besides autocracy, any other power for Russia is not only harmful, but also ruinous for citizens. Catherine called for moderation in laws and politics and the inadmissibility of tyranny. But the Commission ceased to exist in 1768 due to the outbreak of war with Turkey, without adopting a new code, although Catherine used many of the prepared materials when carrying out reforms.
The reforms were significantly influenced by the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev. Catherine tried to suppress pockets of tension in regions with a large Cossack population, where dissatisfied masses of people poorly controlled by the government flocked.
In 1775, a system of local self-government was organized. Instead of a three-tier administrative division (province, province, district), a two-tier division was introduced - province, district. At the head of each province, the emperor appointed a governor, and if 2 or 3 provinces were united, a governor-general with great administrative, financial and judicial powers. All military units and commands located in this territory were subordinate to him. The district was headed by a police captain, elected by the nobility for a 3-year term. The city became a separate administrative unit and instead of governors, mayors appointed by the government appeared. Citizens could elect the mayor and members of the city council once every 3 years.
In the first years of the reign of Catherine II, the rights and privileges of the nobles were strengthened and increased. They could not serve (Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility of 1762, issued by Peter III) if they did not want it. The nobles turned from servants into a privileged class. In 1785, the Empress signed the “Certificate of the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility.” It secured all the class rights and privileges of the nobility. They received the unique right to own serfs and lands, pass them on by inheritance, buy villages, etc. It was forbidden to confiscate noble estates for criminal offenses - the estates in such cases passed to the heirs. The nobles were exempt from corporal punishment, personal taxes and various duties. Only by court could they be deprived of their noble title. In the provinces and districts, administrative power was completely in the hands of the nobles.
Going towards the nobility, Catherine II approved the monopoly right of the nobles to own land (General Land Survey, 1765), serfs (1762), and distillation (1765). Feeling full support from the empress, the nobles began to attack other classes on various issues. Nobles could have a noble title and family coat of arms, and participate in noble meetings and societies.
Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
Agriculture in the first half of the 19th century. continued to be extensive. Its development took place through clearing forests and plowing meadows in the center of the country and developing new areas on its outskirts. Low labor productivity remained, and three-field farming and primitive agricultural tools prevailed.
The invasion of market relations interfered with the natural nature of the serf economy. The expansion of lordly plowing due to the increased production of landowners' grain for sale led to a reduction in peasant plots. A process of social stratification took place in the village, which contributed to the growth of peasant entrepreneurship and the development of market relations.
Some landowners' farms are beginning to use machines, new methods of field cultivation and forms of land use. However, an attempt to introduce new agricultural technology while maintaining old feudal production relations was futile. The rationalization of the landowners led to a further strengthening of the feudal exploitation of the peasants.
Manufacture remained the main form of large-scale industrial production, but in the 1830s and 40s. The industrial revolution begins, which is characterized by the transition from the manufacturing stage of production to the factory stage, based on the systematic use of machines. This process began first in the textile industry, and later in the mining industry.
However, for a successful transition from manufactory to factory, a significant number of free hired workers was required. The serf system delayed the development of industry. Urban population for the first half of the 19th century. grew from 2.8 to 5.7 million people, and the entire population increased by 75%.
Fairs with large amounts of trade turnover were of national importance (there were more than 60 of them). Foreign trade relations expanded. The development of trade was hampered by the unsatisfactory condition of communications. In land transport, the horse-drawn system dominated. Construction of highways began in the center of the country. In 1837, a railway was built between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo, by 1851 - a Moscow-Petersburg road, by 1859 - a Petersburg-Warsaw road. However, the total length of roads and railways was negligible.
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